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Lessons for Global Citizenship
In trying to understand this terrible episode in Asian history,
we cannot deny that atrocities occurred or downplay their seriousness.
However, it is unwise to think that these acts were uniquely Japanese or that they
reflect some aberration in the character of the Japanese people.
There were, of course, specific dynamics unique to Japan. For example, the Japanese
state made use of the ancient code of the warriors (bushido) and the Emperor system (kokutai)
to instill fanaticism and a follower mentality within the military and among the civilian population.
Similar factors played a part in the rise of fascism and dictatorship on a global scale during the 1920s and
1930s. After the war, the world community searched for a way to prevent aggressive war and human rights violations.
The results of this search offer rich lessons in global citizenship.
Imperialism
In annexing Korea and Manchuria and invading China, Japan was attempting to carve out its own colonial empire. It did this
under the pretext of liberating Asians from Western imperialists.
The West was vulnerable to criticism, because Great Britain, the United States, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, France,
Germany, and Russia had all previously colonized parts of Asia.
The world community has since rejected this colonialism and, through the
United Nations, has adopted the following principle: "All members shall
refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial
integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent
with the purposes of the United Nations." (Article 2(4) of the United Nations
Charter of June 26, 1945.)
Democracy
Despite a movement for liberal-democratic reform in Japan between 1911
and 1928 and the granting of universal male suffrage in 1925, political
repression was achieved through a public security act. The Japanese
government repressed both democratic and left-wing criticism of its
actions abroad. Ultra-nationalist Japanese military and civilian groups
organized in reaction to the rising democracy movement, to the world
economic crisis, and to what they perceived as hesitancy on the part of
the government in carrying out what they viewed as Japan's divine
Imperial mission. Terrorist activities and imprisonment brought most
groups into line, including the Imperial household, the bureaucracy, and
conventional political parties. Military and civilian police units
became so powerful that by 1940 political prisoners could be detained
indefinitely, and political parties and trade unions were disbanded.
Motivated by a desire to avoid repeating experiences such as those
described above, many people and nations worked to establish standards
of civil conduct that would empower people. For example, the United
Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, passed on
December 10, 1948, by the United Nations General Assembly. These and
other codes created new benchmarks for the respect of human and social
rights, and adherence to them can help preserve and protect democracy.
Militarism
When the Emperor declared war against China in 1894 and against Russia in
1904, he explicitly stated that Japan would respect international law. In the 1930s, when the Japanese
government and military commenced their acts of aggression in China,
they referred to these as "incidents" rather than acts of war. To them,
this meant that they were no longer bound by recognized rules of war,
including the Hague and Geneva conventions that offered minimal
standards of protection for captured soldiers and civilians. These
factors contributed to the poor treatment of both POWs and non-combatant
civilians by the Japanese military.
Racism and Sexism
Racism fueled the atrocities committed by the Japanese military. And today racism persists,
leading to problems such as "ethnic cleansing" and acts of genocide. Similarly,
sexism led to crimes against women, including rape and other acts of violence. The world community has
outlawed these acts, and these prohibitions have been enshrined in human rights legislation on
international and national levels. For example, the United Nations passed the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948); the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (1965); and the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993).
These and other conventions result from the lessons of the past, but constant
education, vigilance, and preventive services are essential if they are
to have a meaningful impact.
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